The History of Abolition in the United Kingdom

For those who do not recall, I was the first to make my presentation to the class of English 3204. My topic was on the history of the abolition movement in the United Kingdom, those who fought for abolishing slavery, and the writers who contributed in promoting the cause.

The first steps toward abolition began in 1772 with the Somersett's Case, which concerned a slave named James Somersett who escaped hs master and was recaptured. When the dispute over his status reached trial, it became apparent that his initial enslavement and later imprisonment might have been illegal. Lord William Murray, the First Earl of Mansfield, presided over the case, and he ruled that the slave was illegally brought to Britain and could henceforth go free. While it was not outlawing slavery, the Somersett's Case was one of the first cases to tackle the issue. Although the practice of buying and selling slaves was declared illegal, many Europeans found a technicality in the law by continuing to own slaves, which was not covered by the ruling. Furthermore, several British colonies, such as those in the Carribean, kept the practice of slavery going, because the law stated that buying and selling slaves on English soil.

During the latter part of the 18th Century, the seeds were set for the abolitionist movement to take shape. A philanthropist and politician named William Wilberforce became active in promoting the end of slavery, because he believed it was against the intention of God for one man to own and control the life of another. In 1791, he introduced a bill calling for the abolition of slavery, but it was quickly defeated in a vote. By the early 1800s, Wilberforce and several Whig politicians lobbied heavily for the abolition of slavery, and the Slave Trade Act of 1807 abolished slavery within the Empire. Those sea captains and merchants who continued to defy the law would be punished with a stiff fine. However, due to the complexities in the legal system, the Slave Trade Act was not affirmed until the 1833 Slavey Abolition Act. Apart from abolishing slavery, it ruled that slaves were entitled to compensation from their owners and the government. In addition, the 1833 Act did not apply to certain territories in the Atlantic region and in the Far East. The British colonies only released slaves who were under six years of age. Despite being slavery being abolished in the British Empire, several other countries such as America took longer to follow suit and criminalize slavery. France did not outlaw the practice until fifteen years later in 1848. Although the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863, the United States were unable to render all transactions and ownerships of slaves illegal until 1865. As of today, there are countries in the Middle East and Asia which continue slavery, which is considered a crime against humanity by the United Nations.

Apart from politicians, there were a number of writers and scholars who voiced their opposition to slavery, and their views are expressed in their literary writings. While he was not part of the abolitionist movement, James Locke argued for the rights and freedoms of Man. In his 1690 work "An Essay concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Government", he wrote that "...all Men may be restrained from invading others' Rights, and from doing hurt to one another" (261). In his examination of slavery in Chapter 4, Locke claimed that Man had the "natural Liberty" to be free of any oppression, intimidation, or harmful wrongdoing of another, because no one has the right to infringe upon the natural rights and freedoms of someone else (262). He viewed slavery as "the State of War continued, between a lawful conqueror, and a Captive" (263). Poet and playwright Aphra Behn wrote the novel "Oroonoko, or, the Royal Slave" in 1688. Perhaps her most famous work, Oroonoko is significant, because it is one of the first pieces of prose to have a Negro as its protagonist and depicted positively. The titular character is presented as an educated, noble, and well-rounded man, which could be a commentary on the way that European nobles saw themselves. In addition, William Cowper wrote the 1789 poem "The Negro's Complaint" from the point of view of an African who is abducted from his home and forced into slavery. While he is angered at his oppression, he vows that "Minds are never to be sold" and notes that he is still free in his own thoughts (948). However, he expresses bewilderment at the way whites treat blacks, saying, "Skins may differ, but affection/Dwells in white and black the same" (949). The speaker concludes the poem by urging the "Slaves of gold" to prove to "Prove that you have human feelings, Ere you proudly question ours!" (950).

Based on these examples, it is evident that the abolition movement in the United Kingdom was a very complex and difficult process for the politicians, supporters, and slaves of the late 18th- early 19th Centuries. While it was argued that owning another human being was illegal, several slaveowners in England and the British colonies defied the law by continuing the practice of buying-selling-owning slaves. Upon the government outlawing slavery, it took many years to sort out the legal red tape before it was finally upheld. As well as politicians, there were many writers, critics, and poets who lobbied for abolition, and they were significant in promoting the anti-slavery message to the reading public via their works.

Musings on Gray of the Graveyard Poets

Last week, we were asked to read the "Graveyard Poets" but did not get to discuss them in greater depth. Although these were the last items on the syllabus, I was intrigued with works such as "Ode to Melancholy", "Ode to Fear", "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard", etc. While the Graveyard Poems are often seen as dreary and depressing for readers, they were also viewed as mediations on the theme of death and the afterlife. Specifically, I found Thomas Gray's Elegy to be quite fascinating for exploring what death means to the common man, how they dread the thought of passing on, and the fear of not being remembered. For these reasons, the Graveyard Poems could be considered humanist works in their focus on life and death.

Written by Gray, "Elegy" is actually an ode rather than an elegy, but its introspective musings on death and what comes after makes it a fascinating piece of poetry. The first verse starts off in descriptive detail about the physical surroundings of the churchyard, such as a plowman, beetles, an owl, and the approach of nighttime. However, as the poem progresses, it moves away from the physical and leans towards the narrator contemplating the life of the deceased person. He, too, is aware of the fact that he will die someday, and he has a yearning to be remembered after he is gone. By the end, the narrator reveals in an epitaph that the deceased was an unknown poet whose concerns prevented him from enjoying life. Having been surrounded with family tragedies, it is not a surprise that Gray was deeply troubled over the thought of dying, and he wondered if he would be remembered after his passing. Hence the poem.

It can be understood why contemporary readers and critics would condemn this genre as "brooding", "depressing", "pessimistic", and "lacking in artistic merit." However, there is some truth in any form of writing, and I feel that the Graveyard poems were optimistic in the notion of something better after death. By using this approach, they can be seen as positive in the sense of death being a part of life and a prelude to the next phase. They could also have inspired influences in Gothic art, literature (death is a major theme in this genre), music, and cinema (such as the works of Tim Burton). Gray's "Elegy" is unique for its examination of life, death, and what comes afterward.

Rasselas- an Anti-Novel and a different kind of Oriental Tale

Oriental Tales are a  popular form of literature- such examples include the One Thousand and One Nights collection. They involve exotic locations, foreign characters, desert chieftains, and romantic plots involving young maidens. Story-telling narratives were a popular form of entertainment. However, Samuel Johnson's Rasselas: A Prince of Abissinia is a unique Oriental tale, because it dispenses with action and romance in favour of philosophical debates. It is a picaresque in tone and the narrative is a series of episodes loosely linked in the form of travelling to various destinations. By turning the genre on its head, Rasselas could be considered an "Anti-Novel" for its structure and content.

Rasselas is a wealthy prince who is deeply unhappy with his life and yearns for something more. In addtion, his sister is unhappy, and the philosopher whom he befriends is also discontent with various places and ways of life he has encountered on his travels. Despite being next in line for the throne, Rasselas is not keen on becoming a king, and he compares the valley to a prison. His other brothers and sisters are too content with the Happy Valley and thus have no desire to leave. As a result, Rasselas, his sister, the philosopher, and the maid leave the Valley and embark on a journey for a new way of life. Instead of being an adventure-travel narrative, there is nothing of the sort in the story. The travellers encounter various ways of life such as a solitary monk and a pastoral community, but they are surprised to learn those who adhere to these lifestyles are damaged or affected negatively. However, the one moment where it appears to contain action is when the maid gets kidnapped, but Johnson surprises the audience by revealing that the supposed abductor only wants to teach her astronomy. By the last chapters, there is a notion of stasis in the conclusion in which nothing is concluded or wrapped up. While waiting for the Nile to lower so they can return home, the characters each settle for a way of life which is not exactly what they envisioned. Rasselas, in particular, resigns himself to the idea that he will most likely be a king.They seem to have realized that pure happiness is not fully attainable, and it would look like they are opting for second-best. It is both less than satisfying for the characters and inconclusive to readers.

Based on what I took from the narrative, Rasselas is not what one would consider a novel. Rasselas the character is an introspective, critical man who thinks but does not act, grow, or experience much. Whereas some might call the text "more of an essay than a story", I would have to disagree, because Johnson undercuts the expectations of the reader at every turn and does different things with the genre. The physical, sensual world is mostly absent from the text, and there is no romantic interests for Rasselas or his sister. Due to his ailing mother, Johnson wrote the story as a means of paying for her care, but she eventually died while he was working on it. When looking at the downbeat ending, it makes one imagine how the story would have turned out if she lived.  Johnson did not intend to pander to the interests of those who preferred novels to scholarly articles or essays. Based on these reasons, Rasselas can be considered "the Anti-Novel" in its fresh approach to the Oriental tale.

Duck's Thresher Speaks Volumes of the Working Class

Stephen Duck's Poems on Several Subjects (1730) are interesting, because he was a common labourer and a self-educated man in the fields of poetry, reading, and writing. His poem "The Thresher's Labourer" is unique in its portrait of life for the working class, because it presents a mundane cycle of labour, hardship, and repetition.

From the outset of the poem, there is a circular nature of the speaker (the titular Thresher) and his colleagues (hint hint-cycle) in their daily laborers. They must rise early, leave the barns in which they reside, work in the fields under the sun, return to their lodgings, and wait to repeat the process on the following morning. The Master calls them to prepare for the coming harvest, and he intends to rouse them from their slumber each day (except for the Day of the Sabbath). At one point, the speaker compares the situation with Hercules' Twelve Labours by noting that the tasks of the peasants are long, tiresome, and never-ending.

Despite eventually gaining success and pleasing the master, the labourers are told by their employer (or the "Cheat") that they must repeat their toils to ensure the next harvest of corn, which will not be for another year. Duck inserts a small Greek reference to the myth of Sisyphus, which indicates that the work of the labourers is a never-ending cycle that will continue to take place. This is made evident with the speaker noting "Now growing Labours still succeed the past,/And growing always new, must always last." Although the workers will not last forever, the labours of threshing will go on.

For a working class man, Stephen Duck was quite articulate and vivid in depicting the struggles of the common labourer. Considering his mental health problems and eventual suicide, it is evident that he endured a great deal of suffering and hardship in his life. "The Thresher's Labour" is a significant poem in the presentation of commoners in the 18th Century.

The preparations of the essay- planning and coming up with argument

For the upcoming essay, I've been hunkered down in research and writing over the past few weeks. I'm gonna make it easy for everyone to follow.....

Prior to the November 10th class, I have always been fascinated with Jonathan Swift and his use of satire in his essays and poems. Specifically, I will be focusing on how the satirical elements were incorporated into the texts and who/what they lampooned. The intent is to understand how Swift used satire on certain themes and provoked his reading audience. I am examining satire in Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal" and "The Lady's Dressing Room", because these two works show his sense of humour and way of critiquing society for its faults. In "Modest Proposal", Swift uses the extreme notion of cannibalism to control the growing Irish population, provide for the upper and middle class, etc. Ironically, the speaker of the essay claims to have learned about cannibalism from an American (possibly Native American, riffing on the 'Indian eaters of men'?). By using such extreme notions, he is satirizing England and Ireland for their role in the predicament of the Irish.

"The Lady's Dressing Room" concerns the satirization of narrow-minded men, their romantic notions of idealized women, and women themselves. Swift depicts his protagonist Strephon as a foolish man who sees females as something other than human beings. Upon snooping in the dressing room of the woman he is courting, he is bothered by the pile of dirty clothes, brushes, make-up, and ointments/powders which she takes to accentuate her appearance (Swift pokes fun at her taking five hours to get dressed). After discovering a chamber pot, Strephon is horrified at the notion of his beloved having bodily functions, and henceforth he views all women as being disgusting. However, it should be noted that the poem could be a defence of women, because Swift satirizes the 18th Century male's romantic notions of women.

Overall, it should make for an interesting essay.

William Hogarth- Satirist and the First Comic Book Artist

During the last lecture, we focused on the use of satire in the Victorian era (on which I'm doing my essay), specifically with artists and writers such as Jonathan Swift, William Hogarth, Daniel Defoe, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. The presentation given at the start of class was interesting, because it focused on Hogarth and his work with engravings (painted drawings depicting life in society). Satire was a focal point of his work, because it criticized certain institutions and people in societies by lampooning them. Specifically, Hogarth's 1735 engravings of "The Rake's Progress" brilliantly satirize the wasteful, self-indulgence of the rich in Victorian society.

"The Rake's Progress" depicts the rise and fall of young heir Tom "Rake" Rakewell as he goes from prominence to debt, from gambling to debauchery, and from prison to the madhouse. Although receivng a large inheritance from his late father, Rakewell During the early part of the story, the engravings depict cariactures of everyday characters in society from musicians, fencing/dancing instructors, and prositutes. Hogarth presents the upper class as foppish and over-dressed in a French style, while the prostitutes are crafty individuals to steal from Rakewell while covering all traces of syphillis. These themes of having no values, displaying unseemingly behaviour, drinking, and adultery were set against the rich, privileged backdrop of an aristocratic setting. Due to his excessive lifestyle, "Rake" is nearly charged for amassing debt, from which he narrowly manages to escape. In an effort to secure himself and his wealth, he decides to marry an elderly spinster (or 'Old Maid'), but he proceeds to squander his new fortune after gambling it away at a gentleman's club. Finally, the law catches up with Rake and places him in debtors' prison. Later, he becomes insane and gets sent to a mental hospital for the rest of his days. Despite being delivered from ruin by both his rejected finance and new wife, he has failed to change his lifestyle and then pays the price.

Hogarth satirizes the frivilous, wastefulness of the upper class by depicting its members drink, gamble, and engage in sex with prostitutes. Rakewell himself is a young male archtype who foolishly spends his inheritance, piles up debt, falls from grace, and ends up losing his sanity. The satire depicted here is mocking the rich and criticizing their moral faults. I found it interesting that the term "Rake" itself refers to a reckless, immoral individual, which makes the name Rakewell appropriate. In a sense, William Hogarth was the first artist of comic books, but rather than superheroes, his stories focused on what was wrong with society by satirizing it.

The Problem with Coffee Houses

During last week's class, I learned a great deal about coffee houses and periodicals.

For instance, the second presentation focused on the popularity of coffee houses in the 18th Century, because they acted as social outlets for various social cliques and businessmen. In fact, they were used as office space and meeting centers for barristers and insurance agents. London became one of the cities with the largest number of coffee houses within its layout. However, housewives began speaking out in opposition to these establishments, because their husbands spent more time there instead of being at home. There were lobbying attemps to get coffee houses shut down, but there were counter-petitions drawn up in response.  Despite the mixed reactions about coffee houses, they subscribed to journals, which were quite expensive for the common individual to purchase. Instead of buying them, people gathered with their peers to read them. Unlike magazines and newspapers of today, these journals consisted of essays, social commentary, philosophical topics, and discussion of current events. It was a shared love of diverse knowledge; the purpose of these journals was to move debates away from the classroom and into coffee houses, tea tables, or closets for further study.

Coffee houses were a major social area for 18th Century men, but they proved to be a problem towards women (and to a degree, the taverns and ale houses). Apparently women had a bigger issue with their husbands hanging out in coffee houses rather than getting drunk. However, the coffee houses were important in getting academic/literary discussions out of schools and universities and into the public setting.

Reviewing Conduct Literature (Part 2)

For Part 2, this posting will focus specifically on Eliza Haywood's The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless, its status as conduct literature, the social mores of the 17th-18th Centuries, and Haywood's change from amatory to conduct literature. In comparison to writers such as Jane Austin, Haywood's characters get into numerous scrapes and unpleasant incidents. Furthermore, they are complex, flawed, and concerned with social rules and practices of the era. Conduct literature itself did contain many rules and restrictions for women.

The character of Betsy Thoughtless herself is a rather proud, vain, and somewhat self-absorbed, and she has a tendency to get into trouble due to her coquetry. In the first portion of the book, Betsy is nearly raped on four occasions, and her inability or unwillingness to avoid such situations indicates a certain naivety on her part. Like Haywood's Fantomina, Betsy's elders punish her by sending her away; however, the main difference is forcing her to be married instead of becoming a nun. With regard to historical context, women were looked upon as property rather than people, and many of them did not know if their husbands would turn brutal after marrying them. It would not be hard for men to get away with spousal abuse or infidelity in this era. The art of courting was a highly-ritualized practice, but it lacked intimacy and instead focused on tradition and rules. When Betsy is courted by Mr. Munden ("mundane"), he is well-meaning but lacking in sensibility, and his habit of sending her gifts does not result in her returning his love. Upon finally being married, he becomes quite unpleasant in his treatment of Betsy and means to which he intends to break her resolve (i.e- killing her pet squirrel).

The rest of the characters are interesting in their own character arcs and interaction with Betsy. Her adoptive sister Miss Flora is obsessed with ruining Betsy's reputation by plotting and scheming against her. Further adding to the irony, she engages in an affair with Mr. Trueworth, who is the object of Betsy's affection. Of all the characters, Lady Trusty is probably the voice of reason and arguably the one person who cares for the well-being of Betsy. As a giver of advice, she attempts to play a role in guiding Betsy towards young womanhood. Haywood appears to be speaking to the audience via Lady Trusty as a vessel of sorts. However, she is removed for the majority of the text, because Betsy has to experience life as it really was for young Victorian women.

While Betsy is not deceptive like Fantomina, she is a forward-thinking character with a penchant for getting into trouble without intending to do so. Regardless of her good intentions, she would be more fixated on appearing good by others rather than being good. However, she is prone to re-examining her behaviour and wonders what unmarried would be like. Given Haywood's transition from amatory fiction to conduct literature, it is possible that she intended Betsy to demonstrate her changing way of thinking. For this reason, The History of Betsy Thoughtless is important to Victorian literature, because it indicates a difficult era for women concerned with social mores and restrictions in society.

Reviewing Conduct Literature (Part 1)

During last week's presentation, I found the content and format was not only insightful but also amusing in its depicting the strict social rules and conduct literature, which dates as far back as the Middle Ages. For instance, I never realized that women eating in public was considered to be "disgusting" and impolite or that crossing their legs at the ankles or putting legs together with their backs straight were seen as the most appropriate way of sitting. Needless to say, they had it more difficult than the men, who had noticeably less norms or customs than females. However, the exploration of conduct literature was intriguing, because it showed how women were constricted in the 1800s.

John Gregory's A Father's Legacy To His Daughters is an interesting example of conduct literature, because the author never intended it to be published. In the text, he notes how men complain about the reserve of women and their alleged bad habits. For this reason, he warns his daughters (whom he meant to write the book for) against eating in public and cautioning against women who used humour. After he died, it was ionically published and put into printing. Another writer of conduct literature was Lord Lyttleton, who believed that public intoxication was sinful and that loving the husband was the women's primary goal.

One of the most famous works of conduct literature is Eliza Haywood's bildungsroman The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless. The book concerns a young woman leaving her abusive husband and experiencing life as an independent woman for the first time. Unlike Haywood's earlier Fantomina, Betsy Thoughtless does not disguise herself and pursue men for the purpose of sex. The narrative is more introspective and concerned with the question of how to present oneself as "good" to others. Although she is not deceptive or manipulating like Fantomina, Betsy allows herself to be drawn into certain situations in which she is perceived as doing something wrong. During the 17th-18th Centuries, women desired to be good in a virtuous manner, but social expectations were seen as being more important.

To be continued with Part 2.....

Women are Equals to Men, although Some of the Latter Think Otherwise

The battle between males and females has been waged for centuries, but the 17th and 18th Centuries witnessed the rise of early feminism among literary circles. One prominent example was Mary Astell, who argued that women ought to have the rigth to education. While she was not a leading crusader of women's suffrage, her views were shared by a number of male contemporaries such as Daniel DeFoe. Another major female writer was Margaret Cavendish, who was the Duchess of Newcastle and an author in her own right. These two examples are unique, because they pushed for ideas such as equal education and using females as a literary protagonist.

Mary Astell was known for her early feminist work and proposing the idea of an institution for women to be educated. In her book A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, for the Advancement of their True and Greatest Interest, she suggests that women be taught separately from men and given a good education. She put forward the question of why God bestowed women with intelligence and never gave them a chance to use it. During the 17th to 18th Centuries, the only education women received was from Bible study, but they were encouraged (or rather dissuaded) not to read books. The notion of a woman reading novels was seen as "dangerous" for the possibility of giving her certain thoughts. With regard to religious context, a number of religions had dogmatic claims that viewed men and women as not being different; indeed, Quaker groups allowed females to speak at meetings. However, most denominations (Catholics, Protestants) were strict on conformity. Apart from Astell, Daniel DeFoe (Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders) was also in favour of an all-women's college in the design of a convent for nuns.

Unlike Astell, Margaret Cavendish is an interesting woman for her ability to get her work published. As the Duchess of Newcastle, she had the support of her husband, who pretty much let her do as she wished. Due to her high status, she was able to social circles of learned individuals, which was considered scandalous for women to do. Her 1666 prose fiction A Description of a New World (or The Blazing World) was significant, because it concerned a female protagonist exploring new realms and pondered themes of science. However, Cavendish was mocked and derided by others for being "mad", "different", and abnormal. Ironically, she was able to get her work published due to her supportive, financially-stable husband.

While a number of women were able to publish their work in this period (mostly under pseudonyms), Astell and Cavendish are significant for their ideals in women being educated and casting females as protagonists. Although they had a number of male writers who shared their views, there was no major feminist movements at this time. Women being educated was a hotly-contested debate and an interesting topic in history, because obtaining higher education was not seen as a universal right. Nevertheless, Astell and Cavendish were instrumental as females getting their work published.

Anti-slavery narratives: the reworking of style, narrative, and genre

During last week, I did a presentation on the abolition of slavery in Britain, and it briefly touched on anti-slavery narratives. After reading a number of said texts, I found that several writers wrote a number of pieces examining the practice of slavery, and they managed to rework a number of literary elements in the process. Aphra Behn, in particular, is significant with regard to her novel Oroonako, or, the Royal Slave.

In Aphra Behn's Oroonako, she presents the title character as a relatable person for the reader to feel sympathy for. By depicting the dreadful conditions of slavery and focusing on a black man, Apart from his ethnicity, Oroonako is described as being an attractive man. His new name of Caesar is somewhat ironic, because the ancestors of his master were dominated by Julius Caesar and the Romans. The relationship of Oroonako/Caesar and his bride is an interesting one, because the narrative places a black couple as main characters in place of regular archtypes (mostly white). However, Behn keeps the focus of Prince Oroonako to the point where he is reaping the spoils of war and other slaves treat him as if he is above them due to his stature and intellect.

Through the use of language, Behn presents the dialect and voice of Oroonako with a feeling of authenticity. In addition, the first portion of the story reads like an exotic travel narrative with its diction and description of the common struggles of the Negro slave. With regard to positioning the text, it is difficult to do so, because nobody knows what Behn thought or how she viewed the slave trade. Unlike Harriet Becker Stowe (who was inspired by real-life figures and experiences to write Uncle Tom's Cabin), Behn had no major role models or influences during the 17th Century, because she came late to literary culture. Regardless of her lack of inspiration or role model figures, Behn created a novel with a black protagonist, filled the text with authentic language/diction of African slaves, etc.

Fantomina- A Woman in Control of Her Destiny?

With regard to the Eliza Haywood story Fantomina, the depiction of the titular character has several readers and scholars questioning whether or not she is in control of her own life. Whereas she faces punishment for her affairs, the male object of her affection avoids being shamed for his actions. However, Haywood's story only serves to critique society for its harsh, judgemental, and strict treatment of those who do not adhere to 19^th Century norms.

For 19th Century audiences, the behaviour of “Fantomina” would be considered devious, scandalous, and certainly unlady-like. However, apart from her deceptive methods and affairs, she acts assertive, headstrong, and sexually-confident in her efforts to get what she wants. One such example would be her using of wearing Venetian masks (in the vein of Carnival) to the theatre, which was became more associated with prostitution over time. While she is immoral for her affairs, she is monogamous and madly in love with the man of her dreams. As the object of Fantomina's affection, Beauplasir is the oblivious, dimwitted male love interest in the manly way. He has his own series of affairs, but his womanizing is practically overlooked by society in general. While Fantomina is discovered and punished in the end, Beauplair manages to escape the consequences of his actions. Either he will be too embarrassed to tell anyone about the scandal, or he has a great story to tell his friends and laugh about.

With regards to the ending, Fantomina is shipped away to a convent by her mother, but she seems trapped in her stifling environment. Beauplasir is somewhat relieved that the daughter is being dealt with, but he promises to pay support for the child. Eliza Haywood was a career woman who pioneered the idea of female writers and suffered as a result. Is she really going to be critical of a character that does it? In reality, she is being critical towards society and its social conventions. In most stories written during this period, both the female and male characters were guilty of doing the same thing, but the man had more leeway than the woman and tended to escape punishment.  Some stories, such as Daniel Defoe's Moll Flanders, depict the characters as reforming and living comfortably at the end. However, we can view it as the treatment of men and women; the former is embarrassed while the other is scorned for life. Whereas Fantomina is placed in a convent, Beauplasir is humiliated by the discovery (as well as his being duped).

For these reasons, it is clear that Fantomina was in control of her own life and prone to using several methods to achieve what she wanted. Although deceptive in her actions, it cannot be denied that she was assertive, confident, and madly in love with Beaplasir. The ending is realistic in its depiction of what happened to young unmarried women who got pregnant, but Haywood is using it to criticize society in general.

Commentary of 18th Century Female Writers

During the 18th Century (starting from 1660s era to just before the Romantic Period), several writers began composing non-fiction pieces of life writing, which consisted of (auto)biographies, spiritual autobiographies,  memoirs, etc. A number of female writers were important to this period; among them were Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Frances Burney.

Montagu (1689-1762) was in India for a part of her life, and she wrote one of the first pieces of travel writing. By the end of the 17^th Century, it was not uncommon for young men to “get culture” via a tour of Europe and/or Asia. More women did this over time, but Montagu was one of the earliest to write about it. Thi was a period when people expected letters to be passed around in a limited form of circulation. Letters often went astray, delayed, or lost in the process. To those living in foreign countries, letters were important forms of communication. Montagu paid a lot of attention in her word choice, description, and detailing of various cultures. As a result, she made travel writing interesting for many women and other writers. Despite the fact that Montagu was married, Alexander Pope wrote a number of affectionate letters complete with romantic themes and double entendres. When she writes to him,she tells him that she is not interested. Montagu is basically saying that she will not answer to certain parts of his letters, which she considers to be inappropriate. At one point, she dismisses him as being romantic and sentimental by telling him that marriage would only bring about unhappiness. His poem (which he composed for her) is implying that the possibility of  relationship is worth it, but she is making fun of his ego/pretentiousness. She responds to his with some vinegar in a classy, masterful way of rejection.

Unlike most of her peers, Frances Burney lived to a very old age (1752-1840). While a lot of her fellow writers were established poets and older, she was quite younger at the time. She wrote a great amount of novels, plays, journals, and letters on a variety of subjects which included the female experience, satirizing masculine values/ideals, etc. Specifically, her letter on getting a mastectomy after the fact was intended to be read in the family circle, so it would have been public to that extent. The text portrays the experience as being painful, horrific, and acute with sensory details. At the time, anaesthesia was not widely used, so the pain would have been almost unbearable, and the recovery period alone would be just as difficult. Any housekeeping how-to-book of the 18^th Century would have a heavy section on first aid. Since there were no hospitals back then, the average parent or housewife would have a good knowledge of basic care, but most people distrusted doctors and medical practices. Her style is very diverse, detailed, and brutally gripping in all its frankness.

Both Montagu and Burney were both important female writers of the 18th Century. While the former made travel writing interesting for women and other writers, the latter's journals and letters paint a vivid picture of life for the 18th Century female.

Biehn and Wilmot: Satirical yet Bawdy

During the 17th Century, the 1660 Restoration of Charles II marked a return of art, poetry, and ideals. John Wilmot and Aphra Behn were a few examples of poets who lived in this era. Behn (16401689) was one of the first females to make a living as a professional writer, but she died struggling to find jobs. Some called her “The Incomparable Astrea.” Wilmot (1647-1680) was the Second Earl of Rochester, and he was known for his satiric works, crude yet witty poetry, and his lifelong pursuit of passion and debauchery. The work of Wilmot and Behn can be best described as masculine, crude earthy poems versus detailed, pastoral yet explicit, respectively.

Wilmot was more crude and prone to using vulgar in his works. For example, "The Imperfect Enjoyment" is a poem of premature ejaculation; it involves a man in the throes of passion with a woman, but he is not able to perform sexually. In contrast, Behn wrote about characters with a shepherd-esque sort of name in which they spied on women in the grove. Set in a pastoral setting, it was common for love poetry. Since she is written explicitly about a near-encounter, it is where the humour consists of an earthy kind of literary style. "The Disappointment" is about passion, role-playing, and consent. It is not explicit; Behn writes of the women fleeing the man, who is condemned to impotence.  In contrast, Wilmot has the man cursing both his genitals and passions. The women is not a nymph but a fully-experienced woman who is aware of sexual activity. However, the man was too quick to contain himself and is thus humiliated.

While Behn was not as lewd as Wilmot, her poem "To The Fair Clarinda, Who Made Love To Me, Imagined More Than Woman" was the subject of controversy, because it described the relationship of two women. The speaker writes how she wishes her lover was male, because she would not be able to hide her love. To her, the female part is betraying her to the male part. At the time, sexuality and longing were quite common, but women had to describe said feelings in a subtle manner.

While the Earl of Rochester could be lewd and vulgar in his writing, Behn did explore a number of strong topics in her works that continue to be subject for review by contemporary scholars.

First Time posting and thoughts on John Locke

Hello to the blogging world!

This is my first post on Blogger, but, as cliche as it is, there is a first time for everything. Needless to say, I now understand what it means to be part of a blogging community! I am creating this blog is part of my Fall 2011 English 3204- 18th Century Poetry and Prose. Throughout the next several weeks, I will be commenting, reviewing, or analyzing the rich literary period that is the 18th Century.

For my first posting, I wish to examine an excerpt on slavery from John Locke's An Essay concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Goverment (1690). Having witnessed the events of the Bloodless Revolution, Locke was very critical of and opposed to the theory of divine right. In chapter 4 of An Essay, he states that the "natural Liberty of Man" is to submit to the Law of Nature but to remain free from legislative authority of superior powers (262). Citing Sir Robert Filmer, Locke points out that every man has the liberty to do whatsover that pleases him, and no one should endure the arbitary rule of someone else. He argues Man cannot hold, grant, or take power over other human beings. Describing the practice of slavery as "between a lawful Conqueror, and a Captive", he states that a person cannot receive power over the life of another (263).

Although slavery in Britin would not be condemned until 1722, the anti-slavery movement was started by philosophers and writers, such as Locke, who supported the natural rights and liberty of man. This way of thinking marked the rise of liberal ideals in Europe during the 18th Century.