The History of Abolition in the United Kingdom

For those who do not recall, I was the first to make my presentation to the class of English 3204. My topic was on the history of the abolition movement in the United Kingdom, those who fought for abolishing slavery, and the writers who contributed in promoting the cause.

The first steps toward abolition began in 1772 with the Somersett's Case, which concerned a slave named James Somersett who escaped hs master and was recaptured. When the dispute over his status reached trial, it became apparent that his initial enslavement and later imprisonment might have been illegal. Lord William Murray, the First Earl of Mansfield, presided over the case, and he ruled that the slave was illegally brought to Britain and could henceforth go free. While it was not outlawing slavery, the Somersett's Case was one of the first cases to tackle the issue. Although the practice of buying and selling slaves was declared illegal, many Europeans found a technicality in the law by continuing to own slaves, which was not covered by the ruling. Furthermore, several British colonies, such as those in the Carribean, kept the practice of slavery going, because the law stated that buying and selling slaves on English soil.

During the latter part of the 18th Century, the seeds were set for the abolitionist movement to take shape. A philanthropist and politician named William Wilberforce became active in promoting the end of slavery, because he believed it was against the intention of God for one man to own and control the life of another. In 1791, he introduced a bill calling for the abolition of slavery, but it was quickly defeated in a vote. By the early 1800s, Wilberforce and several Whig politicians lobbied heavily for the abolition of slavery, and the Slave Trade Act of 1807 abolished slavery within the Empire. Those sea captains and merchants who continued to defy the law would be punished with a stiff fine. However, due to the complexities in the legal system, the Slave Trade Act was not affirmed until the 1833 Slavey Abolition Act. Apart from abolishing slavery, it ruled that slaves were entitled to compensation from their owners and the government. In addition, the 1833 Act did not apply to certain territories in the Atlantic region and in the Far East. The British colonies only released slaves who were under six years of age. Despite being slavery being abolished in the British Empire, several other countries such as America took longer to follow suit and criminalize slavery. France did not outlaw the practice until fifteen years later in 1848. Although the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863, the United States were unable to render all transactions and ownerships of slaves illegal until 1865. As of today, there are countries in the Middle East and Asia which continue slavery, which is considered a crime against humanity by the United Nations.

Apart from politicians, there were a number of writers and scholars who voiced their opposition to slavery, and their views are expressed in their literary writings. While he was not part of the abolitionist movement, James Locke argued for the rights and freedoms of Man. In his 1690 work "An Essay concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Government", he wrote that "...all Men may be restrained from invading others' Rights, and from doing hurt to one another" (261). In his examination of slavery in Chapter 4, Locke claimed that Man had the "natural Liberty" to be free of any oppression, intimidation, or harmful wrongdoing of another, because no one has the right to infringe upon the natural rights and freedoms of someone else (262). He viewed slavery as "the State of War continued, between a lawful conqueror, and a Captive" (263). Poet and playwright Aphra Behn wrote the novel "Oroonoko, or, the Royal Slave" in 1688. Perhaps her most famous work, Oroonoko is significant, because it is one of the first pieces of prose to have a Negro as its protagonist and depicted positively. The titular character is presented as an educated, noble, and well-rounded man, which could be a commentary on the way that European nobles saw themselves. In addition, William Cowper wrote the 1789 poem "The Negro's Complaint" from the point of view of an African who is abducted from his home and forced into slavery. While he is angered at his oppression, he vows that "Minds are never to be sold" and notes that he is still free in his own thoughts (948). However, he expresses bewilderment at the way whites treat blacks, saying, "Skins may differ, but affection/Dwells in white and black the same" (949). The speaker concludes the poem by urging the "Slaves of gold" to prove to "Prove that you have human feelings, Ere you proudly question ours!" (950).

Based on these examples, it is evident that the abolition movement in the United Kingdom was a very complex and difficult process for the politicians, supporters, and slaves of the late 18th- early 19th Centuries. While it was argued that owning another human being was illegal, several slaveowners in England and the British colonies defied the law by continuing the practice of buying-selling-owning slaves. Upon the government outlawing slavery, it took many years to sort out the legal red tape before it was finally upheld. As well as politicians, there were many writers, critics, and poets who lobbied for abolition, and they were significant in promoting the anti-slavery message to the reading public via their works.

Musings on Gray of the Graveyard Poets

Last week, we were asked to read the "Graveyard Poets" but did not get to discuss them in greater depth. Although these were the last items on the syllabus, I was intrigued with works such as "Ode to Melancholy", "Ode to Fear", "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard", etc. While the Graveyard Poems are often seen as dreary and depressing for readers, they were also viewed as mediations on the theme of death and the afterlife. Specifically, I found Thomas Gray's Elegy to be quite fascinating for exploring what death means to the common man, how they dread the thought of passing on, and the fear of not being remembered. For these reasons, the Graveyard Poems could be considered humanist works in their focus on life and death.

Written by Gray, "Elegy" is actually an ode rather than an elegy, but its introspective musings on death and what comes after makes it a fascinating piece of poetry. The first verse starts off in descriptive detail about the physical surroundings of the churchyard, such as a plowman, beetles, an owl, and the approach of nighttime. However, as the poem progresses, it moves away from the physical and leans towards the narrator contemplating the life of the deceased person. He, too, is aware of the fact that he will die someday, and he has a yearning to be remembered after he is gone. By the end, the narrator reveals in an epitaph that the deceased was an unknown poet whose concerns prevented him from enjoying life. Having been surrounded with family tragedies, it is not a surprise that Gray was deeply troubled over the thought of dying, and he wondered if he would be remembered after his passing. Hence the poem.

It can be understood why contemporary readers and critics would condemn this genre as "brooding", "depressing", "pessimistic", and "lacking in artistic merit." However, there is some truth in any form of writing, and I feel that the Graveyard poems were optimistic in the notion of something better after death. By using this approach, they can be seen as positive in the sense of death being a part of life and a prelude to the next phase. They could also have inspired influences in Gothic art, literature (death is a major theme in this genre), music, and cinema (such as the works of Tim Burton). Gray's "Elegy" is unique for its examination of life, death, and what comes afterward.

Rasselas- an Anti-Novel and a different kind of Oriental Tale

Oriental Tales are a  popular form of literature- such examples include the One Thousand and One Nights collection. They involve exotic locations, foreign characters, desert chieftains, and romantic plots involving young maidens. Story-telling narratives were a popular form of entertainment. However, Samuel Johnson's Rasselas: A Prince of Abissinia is a unique Oriental tale, because it dispenses with action and romance in favour of philosophical debates. It is a picaresque in tone and the narrative is a series of episodes loosely linked in the form of travelling to various destinations. By turning the genre on its head, Rasselas could be considered an "Anti-Novel" for its structure and content.

Rasselas is a wealthy prince who is deeply unhappy with his life and yearns for something more. In addtion, his sister is unhappy, and the philosopher whom he befriends is also discontent with various places and ways of life he has encountered on his travels. Despite being next in line for the throne, Rasselas is not keen on becoming a king, and he compares the valley to a prison. His other brothers and sisters are too content with the Happy Valley and thus have no desire to leave. As a result, Rasselas, his sister, the philosopher, and the maid leave the Valley and embark on a journey for a new way of life. Instead of being an adventure-travel narrative, there is nothing of the sort in the story. The travellers encounter various ways of life such as a solitary monk and a pastoral community, but they are surprised to learn those who adhere to these lifestyles are damaged or affected negatively. However, the one moment where it appears to contain action is when the maid gets kidnapped, but Johnson surprises the audience by revealing that the supposed abductor only wants to teach her astronomy. By the last chapters, there is a notion of stasis in the conclusion in which nothing is concluded or wrapped up. While waiting for the Nile to lower so they can return home, the characters each settle for a way of life which is not exactly what they envisioned. Rasselas, in particular, resigns himself to the idea that he will most likely be a king.They seem to have realized that pure happiness is not fully attainable, and it would look like they are opting for second-best. It is both less than satisfying for the characters and inconclusive to readers.

Based on what I took from the narrative, Rasselas is not what one would consider a novel. Rasselas the character is an introspective, critical man who thinks but does not act, grow, or experience much. Whereas some might call the text "more of an essay than a story", I would have to disagree, because Johnson undercuts the expectations of the reader at every turn and does different things with the genre. The physical, sensual world is mostly absent from the text, and there is no romantic interests for Rasselas or his sister. Due to his ailing mother, Johnson wrote the story as a means of paying for her care, but she eventually died while he was working on it. When looking at the downbeat ending, it makes one imagine how the story would have turned out if she lived.  Johnson did not intend to pander to the interests of those who preferred novels to scholarly articles or essays. Based on these reasons, Rasselas can be considered "the Anti-Novel" in its fresh approach to the Oriental tale.